Papago Woman by Ruth Underhill

Papago Woman, by Ruth Underhill, recalls the life events of a Native American woman, Maria Chona, of the Tohono O'odham tribe. This short ethnographic account illuminates issues such as feminism, the evolution of the Tohono O'odham society due to European influences, poverty, etc. Chona states the events of her life, chronologically, which include things like fighting with the Apaches, learning how to weave baskets, bearing children, and leaving her husband. Chona was sort of an unconventional lady by the standards of the Tohono O'odham culture. Although Chona recalls fighting with the Apache when she was young, there are some parallel views of the Whiteman such that they speak loudly and quickly, and are considered nosy for inquiring about a persons state of being and whatnot. Chona also recalls the influences of Europeans anywhere from altering the way the Tohono O'odham dressed to the way they spoke to the way they lived their lives. More personally, Underhill describes how the dynamic of the "intense oneness of Papago relationships" changed with European influence as people were forced to separate and become detached from one another.

The fact that this is a woman's account was a pioneering feat at the time, and is sort of a social commentary of feminism. Ruth Underhill is mirrored in Chona in this sense - they both were independent, knowledge seeking women who wouldn't settle for less than what they wanted. Both are admirable for taking the actions they did in the face of impurity and consequential social adjustments.

An interesting aspect of reading this account was the language that Underhill used. It's funny to pinpoint how presentism affected Underhill's writing and how what was once considered politically correct and acceptable has changed. In fact, with the foreword from Ruth Benedict, Benedict refers to the Tohono O'odham as a "primitive people" - oh no! Although Benedict probably didn't mean to use this term in a derogatory way, our society has since then changed its word choice and meaning. Even the term Papago is outdated and largely rejected by the Tohono O'odham people because Papago was a term given to them by the Spanish, which can be translated as "tepary bean eater". Underhill slips up when she describes the Tohono O'odham gifting culture and expressing thanks in that she states, "it was only later I learned that Papago has none of the polite phrases which make up the civilization of my people". Two things sound ethnocentric about this statement: firstly, how Underhill emphasizes the absence of not only these phrases, but polite phrases; and secondly, how Underhill states the "civilization of my people", perhaps inferring that the Papago aren't "civilized". Again, Underhill may not have meant any offense when constructing this account, but it's interesting to see how these types of understandings have evolved in our society.

Portraits of "the Whiteman" by Keith H. Basso

In Portraits of the "Whiteman", author Keith Basso describes a joking culture of the Western Apache that's often overlooked. Native Americans have always been portrayed in a very serious manner, so Basso sheds light on this humorous aspect of life. These jokes entail making fun of the Whiteman through joking around with one another. This linguistic play of the Whiteman symbolizes everything the Apache are not. These are cultural and social constructions based off of observations an Apache might have, but no two jokes are the same because each joke is geared specifically toward the relationship between the people giving and receiving the joke. These joking performances serve as a "micro-sociological analysis" of society - both how they view the Whitman and how they view their own culture. Views are constantly evolving as cultures evolve, so these adaptations are evolving too.

An aspect of joking is "code-switching", meaning that the Apache speaks in English. This in and of itself is a form of social commentary as Apaches were forced to learn English on the reservations. Styles of speaking with block phrasing and higher, quicker speech are meant to imitate the Whiteman. Apaches think that the Whiteman speaks in a way that always sounds angry, which is high and quick - Apaches speak in a low tone that is slow. Adult males primarily partook in this type of joking, but it originally started with schoolchildren. Basso repeatedly stated how the Apache thought these jokes were 'dangerous', and I was confused by this at first because I wasn't sure what it quite meant. Basso reveals, finally, that by 'dangerous' the Apache mean that although the joke holds properties of bringing happiness, the joke could also offend people. And with any joke, sometimes it's hard to tell whether the joker holds ulterior motives of seriousness.

These jokes hold a social commentary of the people giving and receiving the joke in that this boasts of the closeness of their relationship - that they are close enough to be joking so intensely with each other. The most 'dangerous' type of joke is one dealing with disrespectful treatment of the person spoken about (the butt of the joke) in that the butt thinks higher of themselves than other people. As these jokes provide a way to discuss things that otherwise would not occur,

Basso describes a quintessential joke which covers many bases of Apache culture:
1. The joker says, "Hello, my friend!" This makes fun of the fact that Whitmen call each other friend all the time. The Apache don't have a word for this in their culture because even the nearest equivalent is spoken by individuals who are very close to each other. Also, Basso notes how Whitemen use this term more openly when they want something from someone.
2. The joker says, "How you doing? How you feeling?" Such questions as these are considered violations of privacy instead of concerned notions. The Apache view the Whiteman as nosy and lacking a degree of self-control because they want to know all aspects of that persons life.
3. The joker says, "Look who here, everybody! Look who just come in." This is considered unnecessary fanfare and drawing attention where there not need be. Apaches view this as socially exposing and embarrassing.
4. The joker says, "Sure, it's my Indian friend, L." By referring to the person by their personal name is considered addressing the person as a piece of individual property.
5. The joker slaps his friend on the back, shakes his hand vigorously, stares him in the face, and guides him to his seat. Apaches avoid touching each other, so slapping backs and shaking hands are an encroachment of personal space. Staring at someone in the face is considered an act of aggression. And guiding the person to his seat is considered bossy, which the Apache find very offensive.
6. The joker repeats rapid fire questions. The Apache consider it rude to repeat questions, and not giving someone enough time to respond is deemed discourteous.
7. The joker says, "You looking pretty fat!" Statements concerning someone's physical appearance are considered disrespectful and discomforting. The Apache want to blend in moreso than stand out like the Whiteman, who the Apache think are very self absorbed.
8. The joker speaks quickly and in a loud, high-pitched voice. As mentioned earlier, this is how the Apache view the Whiteman speaking, which they deem angry.

As stated prior, views of the Whiteman are constantly evolving, but regardless, these portraits will always be what the Apache is not. These jokes serve as social commentary of how the Apaches view the Whiteman, but also how the Apache view themselves. These jokes are only performed when the people giving and receiving the joke are close enough with each other that neither will be offended.

Native Nations of the Plains

In Chapters 8, 9, and 10 of Native Nations, Bonvillain addresses native nations of the Plains. The Great Plains refers to the territories of central and western North America. The environment doesn't bode well in terms of precipitation and farming, and high temperatures plague the summer months. Some of these nations include the Arikaras, Mandans, Hidatas, Comanches, Wichitas, Kiowas, Lakota/Dakota (pictured left), etc. Of these nations, there are six different linguistic families being that of Algonkian, Athabaskan, Caddoan, Siouan, Kiowa-Tanoan, and Uto-Aztecan. Most of the indigenous Plains languages are actually still spoken today by Native Americans on the reservations.

Most people think of horses as being indigenous to North America, with the myth of the wild mustang and all that jazz, but horses were introduced by the Spanish of the southwest. The acquisition of horses forever changed how these nations lived. Among some of the most important aspects of their lives affected include transportation, concepts of social status and wealth, and rituals. The amount of horses one has became a symbol of wealth, and horses were sacrificed at the owner's death, if possible. Horses allowed these nations to migrate much easier, and the elderly and sick could retreat to riding a horse if they were unable to walk. Consequently, the egalitarian ethic was negatively impacted by this as well since a social hierarchy was created, which marginalized those who did not own horses.

Women's status changed as a result of the trade of horses and buffalo. Woman's labor was essential to trade, and a man might have become polygamous to ensure his wives prepared more hides and thus, elevating his economic status. Therefore, the notion of polygyny had nothing to do with a romanticized concept, but rather an economic stance. Westerners have a social stigma against polygny when in fact, most societies around the world practice polygamy. Most societies use the metric system too, but that's another issue. The point is, Western tradition has developed the ethnocentric notion that simply because we accept the romantic notion of monogamy and consensual love that other societies are wrong and therefore seem like chauvinist bigots. The fact is, different cultures hold different priorities - Western society centers around romantics, while many other societies center around survival and economics.

The Choctaws

Bonvillain writes about the Choctaws in Chapter 7 of Native Nations. The Choctaws inhabited the southeast, more specifically Mississippi, western Alabama, and eastern Louisiana, before being forced off their land during the "Trail of Tears". The Choctaws were the second most populous indigenous people of the southeast nations - the Cherokee being first. Though the Choctaw, like the Seminoles, had to deal with an intense bayou type environment, they farmed and foraged as a way of accumulating subsistence. (Shout out to my Choctaw friend Joanna!)

I've always been interested in cultural norms and mores of different societies and when I read about Choctaw clothing, it sparked my interest. Choctaw men wore a breechcloth that hung from their waists around the front and back, and women wore skirts consisting of deerskin or buffalo hair or plant fibers. Both sexes went topless. There is a clear stigma in Western culture against toplessness, most certainly due to sexual arousal and social conditioning which states baring breasts is indecent. This was illustrated later in the chapter when Bonvillain explained consequences of European expansion. Bonvillain described British traders who were served graciously by Choctaw women and showed no respect for them by blatantly placing their hands on the breasts of the wives. This was not permitted, obviously, and in fact, death was preferable to humility. Needless to say, this caused problems not only between the traders, but within the psyche of Choctaw women as well.

Another interesting aspect to cultural norms and mores is tattoos. To the Choctaws, tattoos were symbols of honor as well as decoration. Bonvillain states that warriors, chiefs, and their wives adorned tattoos on their faces, arms, shoulders, thighs, and legs, while warriors particularly adorned them on their chests. This lends itself to another Western stigma of social conditioning and indecency, particularly in regard to religion. Currently, tattoos are much widely accepted by western culture. People sport them for a variety of reasons, including honor and pure decoration, but Choctaw strictly used black, red, and blue pigment as these were the types available at their disposal.

Native Nations of the Southeast

Everglades

Chapter 6 of Native Nations addresses Native Nations of the Southeast. Bonvillain first outlines the five linguistic families: Muskogean, Caddoan, Iroquoian, , Siouan, and Algonkian. Bonvillain elaborates on the Muskogean linguistic family since it is the largest, which consists of the Choctaws (discussed in the next blog), Chickasaws, Creeks, Seminoles, Natchez, Coosas, Alabamas, Yamasees, and several others. It's neat to learn about how these nations adapted to a completely different environment with the bogs and swamps of the south (see everglades pictured above). These harsh conditions boded well, however, when it came time for the Seminoles to flee because they had the advantage of knowing the terrain, which Europeans were otherwise foreign to. Mosquitoes, alligators, and subtropic wetland humidity - oh, my! Since resources were in relative supply, south-easterners didn't have to migrate, and lived a sedentary lifestyle. South-easterners utilized horticulture, along with the usual hunter-gathering way of life. I liked the Natchez thirteen moon calendar, as it reminded me of the farmers almanacs of today, in which the names of the moons are pretty straight forward as to the crops and animals in season (e.g. the little corn moon is the third moon of the year, which begins in March, not February, and the Great Corn moon is the seventh moon - makes sense, right? Right.) I found it interesting, and this reveals a European ignorance, that South-easterners hunted buffalo, particularly in the western parts, but also Kentucky, Arkansas, and Tennessee. I often forget how the buffalo roamed not only the Plains of the North, but also prairies and grasslands that covered a large segment of the middle U.S. and even some eastern territories. Turkeys were considered the most important bird of the southeastern diet - understandable why Ben Franklin wanted the turkey to be that national bird as they were plentiful.

Reading about the Natchez left a bad taste in my mouth as most of the culture described by Bonvillain was on account of post-European conquest. Egalitarian ways were shattered and Natchez society was split into two classes: the noble and the commoners. This is further revealed with titles, such as the highest ranking chief's eldest sister (near equal to the chief) is called "White Woman". The submission continues as commoners were mostly referred to as "stinkards". What a set up for disaster and resentment!

Now to the meaty stuff with the Seminoles and encounters with Spanish explorers and the federal government in general. The Seminoles are perhaps the most honored of all the tribes in my opinion because of their will to fight and dedication to their people. Seminoles fought with Andrew Jackson's troops even though they resided in Spanish territory at the time of Jackson's presidency. A seven year Seminole War that ended in 1842 forced a good majority of Seminoles out, but Seminoles never actually signed a treaty. I'd heard of this only vaguely, and Bonvillain doesn't directly address it, but she does state that their leader, Osceola, attempted to negotiate a settlement, but when he tried to call truce, Osceola was jailed and died there (pictured in the center of the Seminoles to the left). Seminoles continued to reject removal thereafter and only about 150 survived to continue living in Florida. I tried to do a little bit of research on this and the only information I could find is that someone said Governor Claude Curk signed a treaty with the Seminoles in the 60's, but I'm not sure as to how much water this holds because I couldn't find any further research on it. As far as I'm concerned, the Seminoles are only recognized by the federal government, but not actually associated with them. Also, Seminoles pioneered with legal and economic relations as they were the first nation to raise the issue of gambling to the U.S Supreme Court.

Aerial Archaeology

Technological advancements such as aerial photography and Google Earth are making finding sites a lot easier for archaeologists these days. From the sky, one has an overview of the landscape and can better view topographical features which might indicate a site. In addition, archaeologists are gaining access to previously restricted locations. For instance, aerial archaeology would bode well for archaeology of the Ancient Near East because tells (mounds created by repetitive occupation) would be distinct in the landscape. Shown in the picture above are some of the Nazca lines. This also reminded me of the intaglios I saw out at field school made by the Colorado River tribes, but I'll discuss this later.

Stated in the following article are the new discoveries made by Dr. David Kennedy at the University of Western Australia due to aerial photography: http://www.stuff.co.nz/technology/digital-living/5675744/Aussie-makes-discoveries-from-his-office. Kennedy discovered stone structures that span across the Arabian peninsula from northern Syria to Yemen. These types of findings are called geoglyphs and vary in depiction - animals, humans, etc. What's really exciting is that these geoglyphs are prehistoric and from around 9000 years ago, whereas the Nazca lines are only about 1000 years old. The area was fruitful in regard to dwellings as well, which led to tomb discoveries.

As I said, these findings reminded me of the intaglios at Blythe, Arizona (man, was it hot there!). The intaglios were created by the Colorado River tribes. These intaglios, as well as the Topac Maze in Needles, Arizona, were formed by desert pavements, which are gravel terraces formed by wind and deflated by water. The Topac Maze (above right) was a series of parallel routes and aboriginal trails, whereas the Blythe intaglios depicted mainly anthropomorphic figures (pictured left). The process entails removing the surface pavements to show earlier and lighter stones/sand. Interestingly, anthropomorphic figures like this are rare and there are several different styles of depiction.

The Mi'kmaqs

Concluding the Northeastern section of Native Nations, Bonvillain writes about the Mi'kmaqs in Chapter 5. The Mi'kmaqs are an Algonkian speaking people who reside in what is now eastern Canada, up near the Gulf of St. Lawrence by Nova Scotia. The Tuft's Cove settlement is pictured to the right, which is in Nova Scotia. Mi'kmaqs are the northern most Algonkian speakers. As I began reading this chapter, I immediately thought of the environment and how it drives culture - along the lines of Julian Steward's theory of cultural ecology. Since Mi'kmaqs live in a colder environment with limited resources, this was reflected in their choice of band congregation, which was more territorial than social. As would be expected, migration and settlement patterns revolved around food source. The Mi'kmaq way of life consists primarily of foraging, but also of hunting. I think moose are the most interesting animal they hunt - it made me think how they are sort of the like wooly mammoth of our day, up there in the harsh, cold climate. During these moose expeditions, Mi'kmaqs hunted in parties, but even more interesting, is that men primarily hunted alone. It's not clear as to why, but perhaps territorial issues and masculine achievement are safe inferences. Mi'kmaqs were not farmers (until they were forced to be by Europeans) and in fact, they only cultivated tobacco, which was used in ritual and to stave off hunger for all members of the community.

I enjoyed reading about Mi'kmaq religious beliefs and practices, and one thing that I've always been interested in were shapeshifters, or skinwalkers. I'm only familiar with this in regard to the Navajo and Hopi, however. Bonvillain does not directly referenced this here, but she does refer to a powerful people who practice witchcraft called the "buoin". Bonvillain does, however, state than a further manifestation of their power is to change from one form into another, so to me this implies shapeshifting.

I've always been fascinated by birthing rituals, and last year in my anthropological theory class, we watched the documentary The Business of Being Born. The documentary reveals the nature of midwifery and how the medical industry and hospitals essentially stole this intimate experience away from women. Bonvillain's description of birthing reminded me of this parallel. Mi'kwaqs kneeled on the ground or squatted and held onto something while giving birth, which makes sense as to not fight the force of gravity by lying down on a hospital bed. The mother would be surrounded by a few women who would console her and make her feel comfortable, as well as burn tobacco to ease pain and quicken birth. Babies were given oil from a bear or seal to swallow after being washed in the river and then wrapped in animal fur - sounds a lot better than dangling you from your feet, slapping your ass to make you breathe, and squirting silver nitrate into your eyes.

The Mohawks

In Chapter 4 of Native Nations, Bonvillain discusses the Mohawk people of the Northeast. The Mohawks currently inhabit parts of Canada such as Quebec and Ontario, but also New York state. When I read about such things as the Tyendinaga community and Six Nations being granted land by Europeans like King George III, I can't help but laugh. How nice of the British to grant the Native Americans with their own land! It's just oxymoronic! Time after time we're enlightened about the injustices of loyalty and allegiance that Native Americans endured, and the Mohawk people were no exception. Having already established allegiances, Mohawks were attacked by General George Washington during the Revolutionary War. Just the same, Mohawks were attacked during the French and Indian War, in which they pledged allegiance and aided Great Britain. Europeans would rope in Native Americans with promises of protection and land rights, but as expected, no one ever upheld these promises. What else could Native Americans do but comply? They were outnumbered. They were rendered helpless to superior technology. They were losing people rapidly. Some Europeans allied with the Mohawks such as John Norton (pictured to the left), who was a Mohawk leader in the War of 1812 as he was part Cherokee, part Scottish.

Along these same lines, I think it's interesting to read what Europeans used to call Native Americans. Mohawks called themselves "Kanyenkehaka", which means "people of the place of flint", whereas Europeans called them "Mohawks", which means "human-eaters". Interesting how there was no record of Mohawks eating humans, but European ethnocentricity tends to run rampant with imagination.

Again we run into the respected position of women in society. Bonvillain states that if a woman was the victim of murder, her family would be given more wampum belts as restitution as opposed to a man. It was thought that women could not as easily defend themselves and because women replenish the earth with people, they're more valued as a part of the public. Also, Mohawks left wishes to the woman in sexual matters. This reflects the fact that rape and beatings were unheard of in Mohawk society.

Native Nations of the Northeast: Algonkians and Iroquois

In Chapter 3 of Native Nations, Bonvillain describes the practices of the Algonkians. Bonvillain recalls the classic tale of European injustice in regard to land, trade, and overall relations. One thing I always thought was oxymoronic is when I read about things such as the "Mashantucket Pequot Land Claims Settlement Act" of 1983, which grated Pequots federal recognition and funds for land acquisition - so the Pequots had to pay for their land with funds provided by the government that initially stole their land in the first place? It just doesn't make much sense. If anything, the Pequots should be given back their land and compensated moreso for the grief they suffered because of it. I liked reading about the different moeties, or descent groups, because it reminded me of the Cahuilla, who I just studied in field school. The Cahuilla were divided into bobcats and coyotes. Due to the limited numbers of individuals for the gene pool, it made me think of another society limited in numbers - the Amish. I haven't read much about inbreeding within these smaller societies, but it appears that Native Americans had a higher awareness of these consequences, such as by taking actions to ensure no mixing within the clan itself, who were considered siblings. All too common in Amish societies are genetic mutations, such as polydactyly, which are caused by the small gene pool and therefore, Amish have had to bring in members of society from other states to increase the genetic variation.

Bonvillain transitions over to the Iroquois by stating the structure of the Iroquois Confederacy. The Iroquois consist of five nations: the Mohawks, Oneidas, Onondagas, Cayugas, and Senecas. I will probably often refer to Native Americans' egalitarian societal structure and all of the benefits reaped on account of it throughout this blog. I like the fact that the clan chiefs were chosen by leading women of their group, and impeachment could be implemented if deemed necessary because this provides a much more even keeled stance on politics. It makes a lot of sense to create the political structure like this because then the women make their best choice known, and the men respect and work with the women's decision. All decisions of the Confederacy must be unanimous. When I first heard this, I thought how hard that would be for American society with people pulled in all different directions, but again, on a smaller scale of individuals, it's a lot easier to come to a unanimous decision. Not only do the limited numbers assist this unanimous decision, but the fact that Iroquois practice entails creating a sound and dignified solution come about through peace and understanding is a powerful thing. "One heart, one mind, one law."

Also, I enjoyed reading about the "mourning wars" as I flashed back to a class I took on Colonial America. During raids, the Iroquois would take captives to replace the losses suffered during these times. The Iroquois literally couldn't afford to lose any bodies, so they had to replenish their numbers. More often than not, when Europeans would attempt to gain back their stolen people, the captives didn't want to return to European society! I'm a little ambivalent about this - I'm not sure whether to think that would be a shock or a no-brainer. The shock aspect entails wondering why these captives would be so eager to stay, given their ethnocentric upbringing. The no-brainer aspect entails complete understanding as to why these captives would want to stay given the peaceful, egalitarian nature of the Iroquois. I suppose each case would be different, however.

Coastal and Island Archaeology

As I gear up and get ready to apply to graduate school, I've figured out what I specifically want to specialize in. I contacted Dr. Jon Erlandson of the University of Oregon to see what direction their program is headed and he said that coastal and island archaeology is where it's at. I want to work with indigenous archaeology of the Pacific Northwest, specializing in human migration and settlement patterns, so coastal and island archaeology jive with this quite nicely.

I just read an article about an excavation conducted by the University of Liverpool in regard to the transition to farming during the Neolithic period: http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2011-09/uol-eoi092011.php. Archaeological findings include bones from farming cattle and 4th/5th millenium pottery. What this possibly means is that when Europeans migrated to Britain, they brought their farming practices with them. This transition from hunter-gatherer to farming happened in seven or so locations independently across the world, and at different times - not only in the Middle East as Jared Diamond states in his New York Best Seller Guns, Germs, and Steel. Without going into too much detail, Diamond relies too heavily on geographic determinism and ethnocentric ideals of technology in the attempts to prove why Eurasians dominated history- but that's a whole different issue all together. These excavations in the British Isles shine light on the travel link between the seas and the mainland, which provides a stronger record of seafaring migrations.

On a similar note and tying things back into my graduate studies, the University of Oregon conducted an excavation at the Channel Islands, off the coast of California, this past March. This excavation shed new light on North America's earliest record of seafaring migrations: http://smithsonianscience.org/2011/03/californias-channel-islands-may-have-once-held-north-americas-earliest-seafaring-economy/. Archaeological findings include stemmed, chert projectile points and crescents dating back from 12,200 to 11,400 years ago, as well as remains of shellfish, seals, geese, cormorants, and fish. Dr. Erlandson worked intimately with this project as he is the Director of the Museum of Natural and Cultural History at the University of Oregon. These serrated, thin, barbed projectile points are unlike anything by Clovis or Folsom peoples, so it's quite an exciting find for better understanding the peopling of North America and some of the first seafaring migrations!

Where the White Man Went Wrong

Chapter 2 of Native Nations states the injustices Native Americans endured with the arrival of Europeans. We've all heard it before - disease, conflict, greed, murder. Native peoples' cultures became completely transformed and assimilated into European society... for the most part. One interesting notion that I remember learning in my Colonial American class last year was that pigs were not readily accepted among native peoples (among other things) because they competed for food resources, such as nuts, berries, and the like of hunter-forager societies. However, the natives eventually accepted these pigs and domesticated them to then be sold at the market. European Christians should have seemingly been please by these actions, but instead, they ridiculed natives because they tagged the ears of the pigs. Natives had to keep track of their pigs somehow, but Europeans decided tagging was unfit; Europeans often haggled natives for their pigs, or simply stole them altogether since the only means the natives had of tracking them was taken away.

One of the saddest consequences that still resonates heavily with Native Americans today is the introduction of guns and liquor. I remember in my own personal experience and travels out west having encountered several drunken Native Americans who looked so weathered and worn by the treacherous ways of society. Interestingly enough, the fact that liquor was given to natives in such high quantity violated European policy since guns and liquor were negatively associated, so these “offerings” were clearly given with maliciously, among other things. This affected the way Native Americans dealt with conflict and unleashed violent potential. Out at field school, we learned that the Cahuilla Indians would sings songs to each other to express anger in a non-violent way that still got the point across. What a non-animalistic and respectful way to deal with these types of situations! And to think, Europeans called Native Americans savages….

Another injustice that Bonvillain states in the chapter is in regard to “land rights”. Native Americans and Europeans held much different concepts of what it meant to own land. For instance, a tribe might own a piece of territory by way of conquering it, but when they give permission for another tribe to live on the property, the land still technically belongs to the conquering tribe, while the other tribe simply resides there. Europeans felt that land was bought and sold entirely, with no further attachments. Therefore, when land sales came about, Native Americans and Europeans weren’t under the same assumptions when these transactions occurred.

Leaving with an uplifting note, I always thought this picture was pretty funny, explaining where the white man went wrong…

Petroglyphs and Pictographs

I've just read this article about Lee University's excavation at a Central Western Colorado rock shelter site: http://www.chattanoogan.com/articles/article_208795.asp. This site has the potential to yield data about Colorado's prehistory and was inhabited by the Fremont and Anazasi cultures. The article is pretty superficial in regard to the extent of information revealed about the excavation, but it made me think of my own experiences with petroglyphs and pictographs at my field school this past summer in the San Jacinto Mountains of Southern California.
One of my field school professors, Daniel McCarthy, is a tribal relations program manager who has over 30 years of experience in Southern California archaeology. One of Daniel's specialties is rock art, among other things such as ethnobotany, aboriginal trails, and lithics. On our weekend field trip to Joshua Tree National Monument, Daniel showed us several petroglyphs (carved rock art) and pictographs (painted rock art) primarily produced by the Cahuilla and Serrano Native Americans. Daniel had a special type of software on his camera called D-Stretch, which enhances the color and quality of the pictographs. With this, we were able to see details a lot better. There are too many photos to post, so I'll only post a couple samplings. One really neat thing we were exposed to was the harsh reality behind what Daniel called "paper pushers" - meaning people who work for the park services as archaeologists and simply "push paper" so that there aren't any problems. A clear example of this was at Disney Rock (figure to the right) where when the Disney movie Chico the Coyote was being filmed, the producers wanted the real petroglyphs to be more visible and vibrant for them film, so they vandalized and defaced the rock art and produced their own false pictographs. This film is locked away in the Disney vault, naturally. The park service remains ambiguous to this case, and instead of providing historical context of the original petroglyphs, or stating the injustice caused by Disney film producers, the sign only hints at this by stating: "[petroglyphs] have been traced over with paint. This type of vandalism prevents others from seeing the petroglyphs in their original form. Please help us by reporting any vandalism you observe."
We saw several pictographs which depicted the rites of passage women took when they went through puberty. The ritual that ensued was that these young women would paint diamond shapes on the rock and be buried in the sand for days during their menstruation period. Us womenfolk joked about what it must've been like to be buried in the sand when you're cramping! Petroglyphs and pictographs are an important parts of the archaeological record and give insight into what people saw, what they did, what they ate, etc.

Native Nations: Preface/Ch. 1

This is the first entry for Native Nations: Cultures and Histories of Native North America by Nancy Bonvillain. Primarily, the Preface outlines the structure of the book. Bonvillain states in Chapter 1 that the book describes aboriginal and “traditional” cultures; I assume “traditional” is in quotation marks so as to play off of European influences that intruded North America.

Egalitarian ethics underlay relations amongst Native Americans. One thing that always made me appreciate Native American relations was the fact that this egalitarian ethic wasn’t exclusive to just the workplace or whatnot, but all encompassing, including gender, sexual activity, and marital relations. It’s pretty telling that rape and beatings are so prevalent in western culture when they’re virtually non-existent among Native Americans. Europeans imposed inequality when they invaded North America, and this is solely due to the Christian notion of sin, in that Eve was the first to eat the apple.

Another under-appreciated aspect of Native American society, which ties into egalitarianism, is the concept of the third gender category – “two-spirits”. What struck me as accepting thought is the notion that this need not specifically be a biological classification, but that one could become a two-spirit by way of spiritual calling or just mere personal inclination. If only westernized culture were so accepting! Sure, there still appear to be distinctions among genders, but Native Americans seemingly embrace all of them as opposed to excluding one or another. Also, I thought that the concept of dreaming to give assurance to assume the third gender is really a very personal thing – regardless of external influence or pressures. And since dreams carry messages of spirit powers to Native Americans, dreams are very important to intuit and pay close attention to.